how is golden rice modified

Mayer M, Beyer P, Kleinig H (1990) Quinone compounds are able to replace molecular oxygen as terminal electron acceptor in phytoene desaturation in chromoplasts of, Nievelstein V, Vandekerchove J, Tadros M, Lintig J, Nitschke W, Beyer P (1995) Carotene desaturation is linked to a respiratory redox pathway in, Paine JA, Shipton CA, Chaggar S, Howells RM, Kennedy MJ, Vernon G, Wright SY, Hinchliffe E, Adams JL, Silverstone AL, Drake R (2005). Then there are concerns about the employment of the Golden Rice Project such as the cost to set up, technology transfer, the accessibility of the project, the sustainability and credibility of the rice, and stable support from governments (MASIPAG). Golden Rice was engineered from normal rice by Ingo Potrykus and Peter Beyer in the 1990s to help improve human health. Thus, Golden Rice is yellow because of the activity of intrinsic rice cyclases. Clearly, CRTI is simpler than plant-type desaturases. The results showed the potential for golden rice to have a more advantageous bioconversion rate compared to any other biofortified crop, and while supplying 50% of the Recommended Dietary Allowance of vitamin A from a cup of rice, consumed daily. For starters, Friends of the Earth and MASIPAG agree that merely planting Golden Rice will not solve the VAD crisis. Contact | A new version of Golden Rice with increased provitamin A content. What are the main ethical issues that the opposition and the supporters bring up? Friends of the Earth stated that golden rice produces too little beta-carotene to eradicate VAD, solely 1.6 micrograms per gram of rice and 10% of the daily requirement of vitamin A. Engineering the provitamin A (beta-carotene) biosynthetic pathway into (carotenoid-free) rice endosperm. This electron path is also indirectly linked to molecular oxygen as the terminal electron acceptor via an oxidase identified through the immutans mutation of Arabidopsis (for review, see Kuntz, 2004). Plant Cell 14:333-342. Chen Y, Li FQ, Wurtzel ET(2010) Isolation and characterization of the Z-ISO gene encoding a missing component of carotenoid biosynthesis in plants. Pests are the biggest obstacles that farmers face when planting rice. Eur J Biochem 184:141-150. The carotenoid pattern observed in the grain's endosperm revealed that the pathway proceeded beyond the end point expected from the enzymatic action of the two transgenes alone. Golden rice is a genetically modified (GM), it is made through genetic manipulation. Carotenoids and their derivatives include a vast number of molecules and accordingly a great number of enzymes and cofactors. In the late 1990s, German scientists developed a genetically modified variety of rice called Golden Rice. Despite opposition, the Golden Rice Project continued to gradually gain support such as the blessing from the Pope and the 2015 Patents for Humanity award (Golden Rice Project). It is generally consumed in its milled form with outer layers (pericarp, tegmen and aleurone layers) removed. Nature Biotechnology 18:666-669. The biotech industry’s push of their technology raises concerns about their motives and contributes to the negative connotations of GM crops. (Those involved with the Golden Rice Project vehemently reject that their ties to biotech companies undermines their integrity.). In addition, golden rice may specifically target the deficiency of vitamin A but it could not address the countless additional social, economic, and cultural factors that contribute to vitamin A deficiencies. The main reason for milling is to remove the oil-rich aleurone layer, which turns rancid upon storage, especially in tropical and subtropical areas. Genetically Modified Organisms: The “Golden Rice” Debate, Laureates Letter Supporting Precision Agriculture (GMOs), Disembedding grain: Golden Rice, the Green Revolution, and heirloom seeds in the Philippines, Case Study: Golden Rice Iowa State University, Nuffield Council on Bioethics: "Genetically modified crops: the ethical and social issues", "Asian Farmers and Scientists Say No to GMO Golden Rice", "Philippines: farmers call to stop 'Golden Rice' trials", "My First "Golden" Harvest: A Rice Farmer in the Philippines Tells His Story", http://books.irri.org/9712201597_content.pdf, https://www.scu.edu/ethics/focus-areas/bioethics/resources/genetically-modified-food/, Appreciate that malnutrition is a global health problem, Learn how “Golden Rice” seeks to solve malnutrition in developing countries, Discuss ethical questions raised by “Golden Rice” and other GMOs, What is “Golden Rice?” What issues is the. “Golden Rice and VAD.”. RB, T-DNA right border sequence; Glu, rice endosperm-specific glutelin promoter; CrtI, carotene desaturase from Pantoea ananas; tpSSU, pea ribulose bis-phosphate carboxylase small subunit transit peptide for chloroplast localisation; nos, nopaline synthase terminator; Psy, phytoene synthase gene from Narcissus pseudonarcissus (GR1) or Zea mays (GR2); Ubi1, maize polyubiquitin promoter; Pmi, phosphomannose isomerase gene from E. coli for positive selection (GR2); LB, T-DNA left border sequence. Could golden rice be incorporated into traditional cooking methods? Deficiency in this vitamin is a leading cause of preventable childhood blindness worldwide, with up to 500,000 children becoming blind every year.. In a now iconic Time magazine cover back in 2000, Golden Rice was hailed as the “rice that could save millions.” The optimistic prediction of commercialising the genetically-modified (GM) rice in the early 2000s turned out to be a dud: two decades hence and the Golden Rice has yet to fulfill its messianic promise of solving Vitamin A Deficiency (VAD) among kids in poor countries. Fig 3: Gene construct used to generate Golden Rice. “The problem with the farmer’s voice”, Stone, Glenn Davis, and Glover, Dominic. At the end, he gave his enthusiastic support to the development and expansion of golden rice. Methods Enzymol 214:374-385. Tocopherols (vitamin E), chlorophylls and quinones employ the pathway intermediate GGPP as a building block for their synthesis. <, Mayer, Jorge. Instead, α- and β-carotene are found together with variable amounts of oxygenated carotenoids (xanthophylls), such as lutein and zeaxanthin. As a result of opposition, the Golden Rice Project employed golden rice in fewer developing countries than originally proposed. Rice is the major staple food for hundreds of millions of people. These initial experiments were carried out with a Japonica (round grain) rice cultivar. Due to the low-level expression, the complex reaction mechanisms of PDS and ZDS, and the unavailability of radioactive carotene substrates, the investigations were done using a transgenic approach rather than in vitro reactions. Golden Rice has the promise to help prevent millions of deaths and to alleviate sufferings of children and adults afflicted with VAD and micronutrient malnutrition in developing countries. These pests can range from insects to bugs (yes, they aren’t the same) and harm your plants. Golden Rice is a covert attempt to win wider approval for genetically modified food and will not solve problems of malnutrition. Golden Rice is a new type of rice that contains beta carotene (provitamin A, a plant pigment that the body converts into vitamin A as needed). The Golden Rice that is being reviewed in Bangladesh is developed by the Philippines-based International Rice Research Institute. Do you think the benefits of planting and consuming golden rice outweigh the risks? There is also the possibility that genetically modified foods enter the food supply inadvertently from planting GMO crops near non-GMO crops, without knowledge from the consumer. Beyer P, Kroncke U, Nievelstein V (1991) On the mechanism of the lycopene isomerase/cyclase reaction in. Thus, scientists used genetic engineering to … The fact that a PSY transgene alone is sufficient for phytoene accumulation but does not lead to desaturated products (Burkhardt et al., 1997) is evidence for the absence of at least one active desaturase, namely PDS. The first generation of Golden Rice showed that it was possible to produce provitamin A in rice grains, but it was recognised that to combat vitamin A deficiency more higher β-carotene levels would be required. The second gene encodes a bacterial carotene desaturase (CRTI) that introduces conjugation by adding four double bonds. As only two biosynthetic transgenes are required in the process, the logical approach was to identify the bottleneck of the biosynthetic pathway and fine-tune the enzymatic activities of the two gene products involved, phytoene-synthase (PSY) and carotene-desaturase (CRTI). Golden rice is a genetically modified, biofortified crop. Lacking vitamin A can increase the risk of death from childhood illnesses and infections, too. This brief may be used in life science or social studies classes during topics including. Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) – like other problems on malnutrition and hunger – is not caused by the lack of Vitamin A in food, but by people’s inability to achieve a balanced diet. Schaub P, Al-Babili S, Drake R, Beyer P (2005). We should use all tools at our disposal to prevent disease and lifelong disability. In addition to weighing risks and benefits, there is a question about who should decide whether golden rice is employed. 2) are not required. Biofortification increases the nutritional value in crops. The primary sequence of CRTI is unrelated to the plant-type desaturases. Biotechnology could improve the productivity and sustainability of developing countries’ agricultural systems, supply greater quantities and availability of micronutrients, and reduce large quantities of chemical inputs in both economically and environmentally sustainable ways (Potrykus, 2001). It is clear that the golden rice debate is about not only golden rice but also genetically modified organisms in general. Plant Physiology 133:161-169. There will be no charge for the nutritional trait, which has been donated by its inventors for use in public-sector rice varieties to assist the resource poor, and no limitations on what small farmers can do with the crop—saving and replanting seed, selling seed and selling grain are all possible. We need Vitamin A for healthier skin, immune systems, and vision. This changes the colour of the wild rice to a golden colour. Only a small number of carotenoids namely those with at least one unsubstituted β-ionone ring, such as β-carotene have provitamin A activity. (MASIPAG). They argue that even after 24 years of research and billions of dollars spent, the project is still many years away from being released to developing countries. Prof. Ingo Potrykus and Peter Beyer produced genetically engineered rice by introducing three genes associated with the biosynthesis of carotenoid. Bartley GE, Scolnik PA, Beyer P (1999) Two. An analysis of the risks of planting golden rice and the benefits of doing so may yield clarity about whether The Golden Rice Project will have an overall positive or negative effect on the world. Several known pathways branch off at this point, forming biologically important molecules, such as abscisic acid and strigolactones. J Nutr 132:506S-510. Hoa TTC, Al-Babili S, Schaub P, Potrykus I, Beyer P (2003) Golden indica and japonica rice lines amenable to deregulation. For example, as told to Jill Kuehnert for IRRI, Edwin Paraluman presented his story of his Golden Rice harvest in the Philippines as a rice farmer. Authors of a recent article in the Journal of Agriculture and Human Values, “Disembedding grain: Golden Rice, the Green Revolution, and heirloom seeds in the Philippines,” argue that opposition from anti-GMO activists is not to blame for the lack of progress on the Golden Rice Project. Along with the help of his fellow researcher; Swappan Datta, they created the first transgenic rice in the late 1980s. Their viewpoints are lost in the debate, prompting ethical concerns over who should get to decide what crops to plant in a particular country or region. Scientists have added a gene to wild rice that makes it produce beta carotene. Golden rice is genetically modified in order to produce beta carotene, which is not normally produced in rice. The supporters of The Golden Rice Project consistently flout its public health benefits. • ‘Golden Rice’ is a genetically modified rice with high levels of beta-carotene and other carotenoids. GGPP is a precursor that can enter several biosynthetic routes, as indicated. Moreover, CRTI does not form poly-cis-configured intermediates, as plant desaturases do (Bartley et al., 1999), and therefore, cis-trans isomerases (cf Fig. The transgenic rice was rich in pro-vitamin A. Grains of transgenic rice is yellow in color due to pro-vitamin A, the rice is commonly known as "golden rice". Is it a ploy to enhance public support for GMOs, which could take funding away from cheaper, more realistic solutions? The combined activity of PSY and CRTI leads to the formation of lycopene, which is a red compound, its colour stemming from its undecaene chromophore, as is well established in tomato fruit. This pathway produces beta-carotene, a molecule that becomes vitamin A when metabolized by humans. As a result, the edible part of rice grains consists of the endosperm, filled with starch granules and protein bodies, but it lacks several essential nutrients for the maintenance of health, such as carotenoid… These efforts led to the development of what we could call the first generation of Golden Rice (after the proof of concept), also known as GR1. They point out that there are multiple recourses for malnutrition planned and currently in place, that are cheaper and do not require GMOs, that should make golden rice unnecessary. Experimentation with PSY genes from different sources identified the maize and rice genes as the most efficient in rice grains (Paine et al., 2005), a result that has was confirmed later at the enzyme level (Welsch et al.,2010). Some raised concerns about small farmers becoming indebted to larger corporations for seeds, exploitation of farmers, health concerns for humans and the environment. As many years before, the fight for and against GMOs is still in progress with no immediate sense of resolution. “The Golden Rice Controversy: Useless Science or Unfounded Criticism”, McLean, Margaret R.  “An Introduction to the Ethical Issues in Genetically Modified Foods”, Murnaghan, Ian. This reduces the number of transgenes required to only two. As stated above, the advantage of the CRTI desaturase lies in the fact that it can perform the entire reaction sequence from phytoene to lycopene on its own, while plants employ two desaturases and two cis-trans isomerases to achieve the same outcome. “Disembedding grain: Golden Rice, the Green Revolution, and heirloom seeds in the Philippines”, Tang G, Qin J, Dolnikowski GG, Russell RM, Grusak MA. A detailed analysis of the underlying mechanism has been published (Schaub et al., 2005). PLoS ONE 7:e39550. Supporters of the project also reject the opposition’s concern over the fact that the Golden Rice Project has partners in the biotech industry and for-profit companies. Studies of the long-term impacts of planting and/or consuming golden rice have been minimal, because it would take decades to really learn anything. Golden rice is a genetically modified, biofortified crop. A consequentialist ethical framework says that we should look at whether planting golden rice will bring about more good, or more harm. Its structure has been partially resolved and the reaction mechanism investigated (Schaub et al., 2012). It was established that in this case was PSY and not CRTI (Al-Babili et al., 2006). Greenpeace argues against GMOs for the fear of the advancement of biotechnology; however, when enhanced it could improve conditions in developing countries other than solely micronutrient malnutrition. On a different note, there are possible socioeconomic implications that genetically modified foods can have on developing countries. Drowning out the voices of the poor impedes our ability to do so. Golden Rice may seem like a realistic solution for VAD (VAD), but those opposed say the project is deeply flawed. The Golden Rice Project was first introduced in 1999, when two professors Ingo Potrykus and Peter Beyer, proposed their project to Rockefeller Foundation to genetically engineer rice to increase its nutrients. The yellow color is due to the presence of BETA- CAROTENE, a precursor of VITAMIN A. This would be a great thing. However, lycopene has never been observed in any rice transformant and different genetic backgrounds. Ironically, the unheard voices are those of the inhabitants of the developing countries, the intended receivers of the proposed resolutions in the fight against micronutrient malnutrition. In 2000-2001 Monsanto researched adding glyphosate tolerance to rice but did not attempt to bring a variety to market. Explore how Golden Rice could reach those most in need. Clearfield rice was bred by selection from variations created in environments known to … This letter specifically addressed Golden Rice, and the potential benefits it could have if fully employed in developing countries. Golden Rice – five years on the road – five years to go? All plant tissues that accumulate high levels of carotenoids have mechanisms for carotenoid sequestration, including crystallisation, oil deposition, membrane proliferation or protein-lipid sequestration. The non-carotenogenic starchy rice endosperm, on the other hand, is very low in lipid and apparently lacks any such means for carotenoid deposition. Beyer P, Al-Babili S, Ye X, Lucca P, Schaub P, Welsch R, Potrykus I (2002) Golden Rice: Introducing the beta-carotene biosynthesis pathway into rice endosperm by genetic engineering to defeat vitamin A deficiency. With the proof of concept in hands, the scientists immediately proceeded to develop ways to improve the production and accumulation of carotenoids in the seed, as it was recognised that at the levels attainable at the time (1.6 μg/g) Golden Rice would not be able to cover the daily provitamin A requirements of the target population in the absence of a more varied diet. “Philippines: farmers call to stop ‘Golden Rice’ trials”. They do not share the opposition’s skepticism as to whether golden rice would be an effective solution. Rabbani S, Beyer P, Lintig Jv, Hugueney P, Kleinig H (1998) Induced beta-carotene synthesis driven by triacylglycerol deposition in the unicellular alga. Introduction of the enzymes phytoene-synthase and the bacterial desaturase CRTI fills the biosynthetic gap created by the absence of the blue elements. Their breakthrough showed that only two transgenes were required to turn Golden Rice into a reality (Ye et al., 2000). Beta carotene is convereted into Vitamin A when metabolized by the human body. At the time it became evident already that only phytoene synthase and carotene desaturase (CRTI) were needed to get the pathway going, while lycopene cyclase was not required. Consequentialism: Do the benefits outweigh risks? About | Opponents of this strategy, including Greenpeace, argue that Golden Rice and other genetically modified (GM) crops do not eliminate the true problem of poverty in the developing world [5]. Therefore ethical concerns arise from the unknown effect on the environment. The findings are explained in some detail below (Figure 2). Pests. The Golden Rice Project began as a proposed solution for VAD; however, despite the establishment of a Humanitarian Board and abiding by national and international regulations governing GMOs, opposition to the project has blocked the roll-out of the Golden Rice Project in developing countries. The first breakthrough in the development of Golden Rice was the result of a collaboration between Peter Beyer and Ingo Potrykus, and was obtained around Easter 1999 (Ye et al., 2000). These questions remain because of a lack of studies that show the future safety of golden rice in regards to health and the environment. Fig. However, the public does not take well to having poison sprayed on their food which makes sense. Nuffield Council on Bioethics. He gave his approval, saying that like other farmers in countless countries dreaming that their crops feed their families, communities, and countries with healthy food, golden rice meets his needs. In addition, allowing further golden rice development may open up more possibilities of enhancing genetically modified, biofortified crops to combat micronutrient malnutrition in developing countries. Clearly, lycopene cyclase activity relies on the expression of the respective rice genes in the endosperm, just as the occasional formation of xanthophylls, catalyzed by the divergent class of β-carotene hydroxylases (for a review, see Tian and DellaPenna, 2004). This could be due to low level presence of the enzyme rather than its mRNA. Another source of opposition to the project stems from questions regarding the motives of the Golden Rice Project and its ties to several large biotech industries. The explanation is that enzymes further down the pathway, such as lycopene cyclases (LCYs) and α- and β-carotene hydroxylases (HYDs), are still being produced in wild-type rice endosperm, while PSY and one or both of the plant carotene desaturases —phytoene desaturase (PDS) and ζ-carotene desaturase (ZDS)— as well as the cis-trans isomerases, namely ζ-carotene cis-trans Isomerase (Z-ISO; Chen et al., 2010) and carotene cis-trans isomerase (CRTISO; Isaacson et al., 2002; Park et al., 2002; Yu et al., 2011) are not. The gene responsible for the yellow color like the daffodils is inserted into the rice genome, and causes rice to produce large quantities of β-carotene. By the early 1990s, the data accumulated became encouraging enough for Profs Peter Beyer and Ingo Potrykus to gather forces and dare to tackle this feat. When the Golden Rice Project was first announced, it was advertised as an exciting solution to the prevalence VAD in developing countries. Many anti-GMO activists actively voice potential negative consequences of planting and consuming golden rice. The results supported the effective conversion of vitamin A in humans. The head-to-head condensation of two GGPP molecules produces the first,colourless carotene, phytoene. 2. Isaacson T, Ronen G, Zamir D, Hirschber J (2002) Cloning of tangerine from tomato reveals a carotenoid isomerase essential for the production of β-carotene and xanthophylls in plants. Plant Physiol 153:66-79. “Bioinformatic analysis of proteins in Golden Rice 2 to assess potential allergenic cross-reactivity.” University of Nebraska. Schaub P, Yu Q, Gemmecker S, Poussin-Courmontagne P, Mailliot J, McEwen AG, Ghisla S, Al-Babili S, Cavarelli J, Beyer, P (2012) On the structure and function of the phytoene desaturase CRTI from Pantoea ananatis, a membrane-peripheral and FAD-dependent oxidase/isomerase. Risks include potential allergies or potential antibiotic resistance. Beta carotene is convereted into Vitamin A when metabolized by the human body. Finally, supporters of the project consistently point out that anti-golden rice groups also have their own political agenda. The letter stated, “We call upon Greenpeace to cease and desist in its campaign against Golden Rice specifically, and crops and foods improved through biotechnology in general.”. Biofortification increases the nutritional value of crops. Ethical decision-making demands that we consider an issue from a variety of perspectives. This explains why a long research phase preceded the achievement of the proof-of-concept for Golden Rice. Working with genetically modified tomatoes, Peter Bramley established the advantage of using a single phytoene desaturase gene (bacterial CRTI), rather than introducing multiple plant desaturases (Romer et al., 2000). With the letter came opposition. International Rice Research Institute’s mission is to objectively evaluate the new proposed resolutions that biotechnology may offer the rice industry, and they work with the National Agricultural Research system to test the sustainability of the strategies in different countries. Elements in blue, including the blue box, are effectively absent. Similarly, the expression of CRTI alone did not result in any coloured compounds in the rice endosperm, because of the lack of PSY activity. This redox pathway is especially important in non-green carotenoid-bearing tissues, while the photosynthetic electron transport is thought to play an analogous role in chloroplasts. They are not focusing on helping the consumer, but rather they represent the radical fight against technology and political success. Golden rice is the collective name of rice varieties that are genetically modified to counter vitamin A deficiency in developing countries. Other Philippine farmers gave contrasting reports, however. CRTI is also capable of introducing all four double bonds in one step. Golden Rice has an engineered multi-gene biochemical pathway in its genome. The tissue-specific expression of the PDS/ZDS system, instead of CRTI, in rice endosperm resulted in the formation of coloured carotenoids, showing that the rice endosperm provides the complex requirements for the activity of the plant desaturases. Given that bioconversion of β-carotene from Golden Rice is a very efficient process, as highlighted on the homepage of this website, a typical diet containing GR2 has a great potential to help alleviate vitamin A deficiency-induced diseases. This paper provided the proof that β-carotene could be produced in the rice grain. Tian L, DellaPenna D(2004) Progress in understanding the origin and functions of carotenoid hydroxylases in plants. This could create unwanted resistance of a pesticide or herbicide, or could increase the strength of weeds. Or are they out to make a profit? 2 May 2006. Goodman RE, Wise J. Only a small number of carotenoids namely those with at least one unsubstituted β-ionone ring, such as β-carotene have provitamin A activity. A clinical trial was conducted in 2009, published in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, testing the effectiveness of vitamin A conversion from golden rice in humans, children in china. Eyes of the Project children from developing countries herbicide, or more harm for GMOs, which is in. Effects on small-scale farmers because market dominance may arise beta-carotene [ 4.. Systems, and vision the EU, Kroncke U, Nievelstein V ( 1991 ) on the surrounding environment blue. Actively voice potential negative consequences of planting and consuming golden rice ’ ”! Is unrelated to the formation of the blue box, are effectively absent have experience trying to growing own. 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