Hassell’s reference to red bardie found in the, Bussell (n.d.) records the Nyungar term for an edible grub or ‘maggot’ as, Symmons (1841), Moore (1842) and Stokes (1846) record. We would suggest nargagli is a food descriptor signifying that ‘eating bardi makes you strong.’ Our reasoning is that Grey (1840: 98, 87) records narr-gallia as meaning ‘moor-doo-een nalgo’ and moor-doo-een literally translates as ‘strong, powerful’ and nalgo ‘to eat’ (Grey 1840; Bunbury 1930: 198), hence implying ‘strong, powerful to eat.’ The term nargagli may also be a variant of narkergery which Curr (1886) translates as ‘food,’ in this context meaning a high-energy food, rich in fat.10. Little wonder that entomologists use scientific names when referring to particular insects! 1508-1808 [incl. Our mob used to find good eating grubs in the blackboy, gum tree and wattle. Could these terms be descriptors referring to the nutritive fat content of these highly prized grubs? Macintyre, K. and B. Dobson 2017 ‘Notes on traditional Nyungar taxonomy,’ forthcoming, www.anthropologyfromtheshed.com, Macintyre, K. and B. Dobson 2017 ‘Geophagy: The Earth-Eaters of Lower Southwestern Australia.’ www.anthropologyfromtheshed.com, Macintyre, K. and B. Dobson 2014 ‘Root Bark Eating in Southwestern Australia’ www.anthropologyfromtheshed.com, Macintyre, K. and Dobson, B. Stormon E. J. Gould, R.A. 1969 ‘Subsistence behaviour among the western desert Aborigines of Australia’. If the top of one of these trees is observed to be dead, the natives give it a few sharp kicks with their feet, when, if it contains any, ‘King George’s Sound, where it seems to be very abundant, forming a favourite article of food with the natives who call it, ‘a sort of marrow-like grub, which they get from trees, & the taste of which varies, according to the substance upon which it feeds, and the tree from which it is taken. It is found in the whole southern half of Australia. We have searched high and low to find a photo of the Bardistus cibarius larva to help shed light on its enigmatic identity but we could not find a single named image of this particular beetle larva. Species ID Suggestions Sign in to suggest organism ID. Douglas, W.H. When we tried to unravel the difference between a bardi and witjuti grub by asking some Nyungar Elders, they told us that a bardi is a type of witjuti grub. Both have become part of a lingua franca throughout Australia. However, its duration would have varied, depending on localised weather patterns and the vagaries of autumn rainfall. Hammond, J.E. Macintyre, K. and B. Dobson 1990-2010 Consultations and conversations with Nyungar Elders from southwestern Australia during our anthropological fieldwork. The grubs from the blackboy and wattle were the best. Ten Raa, Eric and Susan Woenne 1973 Research Dictionary of the Western Desert Language of Australia, Part 2: English –Vernacular. The National Quality Standard (NQS) makes it essential for Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) services and educators to understand and help … Bardi Grubs (Jar of 10 Brined) now this is the way to keep Witchetty & Bardi Grubs brined and they will last for 12 months and even longer, just remove the lid then screw the lid back on tight ready for your next fishing trip. These pests ca… They are creamy white in colour with a prominent head (which differs in colour with different species) and three pairs of well-developed thoracic legs. Bardi collecting was a seasonally based activity carried out by men and women, although women and children were mostly responsible for the labour intensive task of digging out the grubs from the roots of trees using their wannas. Paralysis Ticks â When attached to humans, they inject venom. Curiously, Grey (1840, 1841) does not provide a Nyungar name for the wattle tree grub, which Moore (1842) refers to as ‘the wattle-tree Bardi’ or kurrang. Phoracantha is a relative of Bardistus belonging to the same longhorn beetle family Cerambycidae. Trictena atripalpis, also known as bardee (bardy, bardi) grub, rain moth or waikerie is a moth of the family Hepialidae. If this has happened in your lawn, there is good news. Grey’s (1841) attempt in the name of Western science to have barde identified to species has only confused the issue. Chauncey (1879: 248) describes ‘the larvae of a species of cerambyx called bardi’ having, ‘a delicate aromatic flavour, and affords him a delicious treat. Where did this cultural aversion to eating grubs come from? This method was called “Yudarn dookoon,” or “tying-up cooking.” He states: ‘A piece of thick and tender paper bark is selected, and torn into an oblong form; the fish [grub] is laid in this, and the bark wrapt round it, as paper is folded round a cutlet; strings formed of grass are then wound tightly about the bark and fish [grub], which is then slowly baked in heated sand, covered with hot ashes; when it is completed, the bark is opened, and serves as a dish; it is of course full of juice and gravy, not a drop of which has escaped.’. Aboriginal terms often embody a number of associated meanings, depending on context. There is no doubt in our minds that the term bardi originates from the Nyungar language, having first appeared in print in 1836 as bader in Bunbury’s journal. Hassell, A.Y. Johnson, Richard M.D. There are many possibilities as to which grub he is referring as most wood boring larvae begin their life cycle under the bark of their habitat tree. Getting the grub is a work of art sometimes. Latz (1995: 103) describes the flavour as ‘somewhat between that of egg yolk and almonds.’. Nyungar people would have similarly differentiated beetle and moth life cycle stages for practical and nutritional purposes. However, after finding a reference by A.Y. In drawing a comparison between the paluk eaters (Will) and meen eaters (Minang), Manyat seems to be implying that the protein-fat rich paluk gave the Will a survival advantage over the Minang who by this time of the year may have been consuming the less nutritive vegetable foods such as the red root of Haemodorum spicatum known by them as meen or meernes.24. In the 1970’s the linguist Von Brandenstein (1979: 47) believed that he was recording the Nyungar name for a local species of wattle known as Acacia glaucoptera found in the Esperance region. After the first rains. grub’s own excrement. 2005 Western Australian Exploration, Volume One 1826-1835, Hesperian Press, Victoria Park p. 93. 26. The Western Mail 1925 ‘A Bardie or Wood Moth Grub,’ 16th April, page 5. Yen, A.L. In indigenous taxonomy edible woodborers sometimes take the name from, or give it to, their host habitat. Grey (1840:7) describes the barde from the Xanthorrhoea as having ‘a fragrant aromatic flavour’ and tasting ‘very like a nice nut’ (1841:288). 121: 295-308. Grey was being fed barde during the season known as djeran the duration of which varied but was approximately from late March to late May/ early June, depending on weather patterns and flora, fauna and avifauna life cycles. The classic notion of hunter-gatherers as nomadic, opportunistic foragers relying solely on the vagaries of nature to sustain themselves is misleading. Edited by D.S. Another example of a shared food habitat descriptor involving edible grubs is provided (albeit unknowingly) by Moore (1842: 63, 45) when he records kurrang as ‘the grub of the Menna; Acacia greyana’ [that is, Acacia acuminata, jam wattle] and gurang as ‘the excrement of the wattle-tree Bardi, or grub; which oozes from under the bark of the appearance and consistence of clear gum.’ These two terms kurrang and gurang are one and the same and communicate certain visual and auditory cues to the presence of edible grubs in wattle. Division of Entomology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India. Traditionally Nyungar people were well acquainted with plant and animal phenological breeding cycles which for the most part structured their seasonal calendar. Perth: W.M. And maybe they are right. Fat is the currency of hunter-gatherer survival in cool temperate zones where climatic conditions are less predictable. The colour of the Cerambycids will be fleshy white while Buprestids larvae ranges from dull white to greyish.’. 1976 The Aboriginal Languages of the South-West of Australia. Soc. This simply translates to yoolar or bark, indicating where to find the grub. ACT. The sharp eyes of the hunter were culturally attuned to detecting ecological tell tale signposts around them suggestive of insect activity. However, Nyungar people prized the bardi for its nutritional fat content. They are a special group of animals, that have occupied almost every environment on the earth. But what was the force that precipitated this drive to consume fat-rich foods? The consumption of fat was essential during the period known as djeran (approximately late March to late May). Your email address will not be published. Curr, E.M. 1886 The Australian Race: Its origin, languages, customs, place of landing in Australia, and the routes by which it spread itself over that continent. Van Huis, A., Van Itterbeeck, J., Klunder, H., Mertens, E. Halloran, A. Muir, G. and Paul Vantomme 2013 Edible Insects: Future prospects for food and feed security. Grey considers wool-gang a type of barde but does not elaborate. 1913 Native Vocabulary. These moths lay their eggs en masse, and in 2–5 days these eggs become grub larvae. The eating of insects is not very common in Western countries, while in the tropics insects are often a regular part of the diet. According to Tindale (1938) the Wirrangu people of Fowler Bay, on the West Coast of South Australia, distinguished four stages in the cycle of the ghost moth. Collet Barker notes in his diary on 6th February 1830 when exploring the southern coastal region in the vicinity of Denmark that he: ‘Tasted on the way some grass-tree maggots found by Talpan, very sweet & good.’ He also writes on 12th March 1830 with reference to a group of young Aboriginal men: ‘Since I saw them, they had been constantly walking, not stopping even to spear Wallabi, Kangaroo, etc, & always hungry & tired, merely, it would seem, supporting life by a few roots & the grass tree maggots’ (in Mulvaney and Green 1992: 260, 273). 268-281. These Caterpillars are grey and hairy with a brown head. Grey, G. 1840 A Vocabulary of the Dialects of Southwestern Australia. and Morrell, W.P. (Photocopy). This hooked twig was made from whatever flexible material was available. On some Australian Cossidae including the moth of the witjuti (witchety) grub. But has our repugnance towards grub eating always been the case? Paluk production was a smart means of live storage of a reliable food source highly esteemed for its protein and fat-rich content. Volume 1. With insights from Dadina Brown. They knew what they were going to find inside decayed grass trees and wattles at certain seasons of the year. As early as 1842 F.W. 367-387. 7th preliminary Working Draft. The method of paluk (or barde) farming involved a traditional scientific knowledge (TSK) of plant and insect phenology that had developed over many thousands of years of empirical observation and practical experience. You could see their holes in the trunks of trees and some sawdust around it…and holes in the ground.’, By ‘sawdust’ she was referring to what is known as frass – ‘the fine powdery refuse or fragile perforated wood produced by the activity of boring insects.’ This term also refers to ‘the excrement of insect larva.’ 20. He records the plant’s name as “paarde-paatt” but he writes “perhaps not a name but a quality term?” He was right in a sense but did not understand the food resource value of this particular wattle. But this theoretical model is flawed. We been eating bardi since the Dreamtime. Bishop Salvado (1851) records iular as the Nyungar term for an edible worm. We would speculate that, Every year we observe “bardi grub holes” while walking along the fringes of the Avon River at Toodyay in the vicinity of, An all-inclusive definition of ‘frass’ from Wikipedia, In a general sense it may be assumed that Nind’s, Grey’s (1841: 64-65) Aboriginal guide Kaiber explains that theft of another group’s store of, We are not aware of any nutritional analyses that have been carried out on, We have not been able to find any information at all about the specific biology and life cycle of the cerambycid. Macquarie University, N.S.W: The Macquarie Library Pty Ltd. Hercock, Marion 2009 Born in the Desert: the land and travels of a last Australian nomad. The same rule applies to the Arrernte (or Aranda) people of the Alice Springs area who put the general word for edible grub tyape before the name of the bush in which it is found. In: Roques A et al. This is not too different from Hassell’s barit (for “b” and “p” sounds in Nyungar language are considered interchangeable when rendered into written form). Shoobert (ed.) Those that I have had cut down present a fine store for them to have easy access to. We would suggest that Nyungar culture which dates back over 50,000 years may demonstrate the earliest form of insect husbandry combined with scientific land management practice in the world. But have you ever wondered what a bardi grub is? Change of blog address 2 years ago The Ranch Wife Chronicles. WA Museum, Typescript. Follow by Email. Trove. The Nyungar like all other Australian Aboriginal groups had a great knowledge of plant and animal phenological breeding cycles to the point where seasonally reliable resources were managed or “farmed” to mitigate against catastrophic food stress. Drummond, J. Bardi being a general term for edible grubs makes it impossible to define a specific ‘bardi-grub season.’ Grubs would have been consumed at different times of the year depending on their larval cycles and climatic conditions. . 2006 The Millendon Memoirs: George Fletcher Moore’s Western Australian Diaries and Letters, 1830-1841. Victoria Park, Western Australia: Hesperian Press. U.S. National Institute of Health, Public Access. Roth W. E. 1901 The Queensland Aborigines 1901-1908, Vol 2, Bulletin No. The mako living in tree-trunks are chopped out by the men.’ (Tindale & Lindsay 1963: 56). Phillips, Charlma 1993 ‘Cockchafer Beetles’, Number 11, Revised March. The following comments illustrate how the early 19th century colonial writers observed this practice with a degree of revulsion. Drummond (1839), the colonial botanist, makes a fleeting reference to the edible larvae found in Xanthorrhoea. Tindale, Norman B. and H.A. Browne, James 1836-1838 Aborigines of the King George Sound Region: the collected works of James Browne. How, I don’t know. London: Oxford University Press. Wood moth larvae found in the roots and stems of Acacia typically pupate underground and work their way up through tunnels to the surface where their reddish-brown chrysalis shells can be seen protruding from tree trunks or holes in the ground from where the adult moths emerge.19 When we asked a group of Nyungar Elders from the Perth region about the term wool-gang, they said that they had no knowledge of this name and that they called all edible grubs bardi or witchety grubs. What Moore’s statement tells us is that bardi is a general term for the large and small grubs found in grass trees and wattles. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Bardee totemic knowledge and rituals were not confined to a single district but were inter-connected with bardee (grub) totem people in other parts of indigenous southwestern Australia from where the term originated. The Cerambycids are normally called as round headed borer and Buprestids are flat headed borer and as the name indicates, the larvae of both can be differentiated by shape of the head primarily (Figs. The anthropogenic firing of the country played an important part in the long-term management of this food resource by stimulating seed germination and regenerating new growth as a future medium for larvae-farming purposes. It is also not out of the question that the term marnung recorded by Bussell (n.d.) may be a linguistic derivative of marrine or marino meaning food or even marinuck, hunger. When attacked the tree shows symptoms by the affected branch dying. Macquarie Aboriginal Words. These early colonial descriptions are culturally relative and reflect the writer’s familiar European taste sensation in the context of their country of origin (e.g. Davidson. Mirror 1936 ‘A Delectable Savoury” – Oh Yeah!’ Saturday 5 September 1936, page 1. Of their paalucks they are extremely tenacious; the person who breaks down the tree being entitled to its produce. The Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London, Vol 1, pp. WA Museum, Anthropology Department. (Cossidae). Hope proposed, with reference to the white grubs or cockchafers of the scarab beetle – the ‘larvae eaten by the New Hollanders and in some other parts of Australia’ – that these might one day become a gourmet food.5 He writes: ‘[should] the food prove palatable and wholesome, the settler, from policy, should patronize as food these dainties which are so highly prized by the wild Australian, and thereby secure the crops of future years by feeding on the insects capable of destroying them; and certainly no reason can be adduced why the grubs of New Holland may not rival in delicacy the palm-worm of the Eastern World, or the cossus of Europe, which the Roman epicure, in the days of Pliny, so highly esteemed.’, There are over 15 different Nyungar names for mostly undetermined edible grubs. Collie 1834 ‘Anecdotes and Remarks relative to the Aborigines at King George’s Sound (from an original manuscript by a resident at King George’s Sound).’ Published in the Perth Gazette and Western Australian Journal July-August 1834. Nyungar people used a range of environmental and astronomical indicators for predicting weather, seasonality, animal breeding patterns, movements and so on. However, the adult insect can be prevented from laying eggs that turn into these damaging, yet delicious, grubs. By deliberately destroying the apical growth of living grass trees, the Nyungar were able to secure a reliable food supply that was customised to their needs. Are these large cream-coloured grubs of the wattle, also called wulgang? A more common name for grass tree is balga (Grey 1840, Moore 1842, Stokes 1846) or balgarr (Bunbury 1930). We think so. The taste is said to be similar to that of pounded almonds with cream.’ (Hassell 1935: 276). May to August 1841. H.W. Also called bardi grub.’, While it would seem that bardi refers to a range of beetle and moth larvae, the ‘purists’ identify it to the immature form (larva) of the longhorn cerambycid beetle called Bardistus cibarius – this being the Linnaean species to which it was originally assigned in 1841 by the British taxonomist Edward Newman, based on an adult specimen provided to him by Captain George Grey from the Swan River Colony collected at King George Sound. 1829 ‘Journal of Dr T.B. Buller-Murphy, D. n.d. This would have been dependent on the natural abundance of Xanthorrhoea within a particular district. J. 28). This has only confounded researchers to this day as to the true ethnographic and indigenous meaning of bardi. Ken Macintyre and Barb Dobson 1992 A Nyoongar Wordlist from the South-West of Western Australia. Help other shoppers by writing reviews for products you have purchased. The antennae are slightly hairy outside. This is a possibility, for African women located edible beetle larvae by holding their ears close to tree trunks and using subtle auditory indicators, such as the “nibbling” sounds of the grubs, were able to locate “the most sought-after instar (the developmental stage of an insect or larvae).” (Van Huis et al 2013:11). 3 (September) pp. 2005 Western Australian Exploration 1826-1835, The Letters, Reports & Journals of Exploration and Discovery in Western Australia. Perth: Battye Library. Running, Cordelia A., Craig, Bruce A. and Richard D. Mattes 2015 ‘Oleogustus: The Unique Taste of Fat,’ Chemical Senses, 2015, Vol 40, 507–516. Another newspaper article in 1950 notes that bardie tasting ‘became a craze among visitors’ to the Wildlife Show held in Perth to the point where supplies almost ran out. In this paper we have tried to show how Nyungar people traditionally farmed bardi or paaluck for the purpose of supplementing their future food supply with a dependable source of fat and protein that was harvested during the indigenous season of djeran when fat consumption was critical for survival purposes. Drummond, J. Witchetty grub control information is spotty, as the larvae is also a common and important food source. These, she said, had to be dug out from the roots of wattle using wannas (digging sticks). American Journal of Human Genetics 14, pp. Tindale (1953) points out that the term witjuti does not refer to the grub itself: ‘In the Arabana native language [South Australia] from which the term is taken, witjuti refers to the shrub, not to the grub, and must be prefixed by the word mako, meaning grub. Recently on ‘Burke’s Backyard’ Don and Dr Geoff Monteith, Senior Curator of Insects at the Queensland Museum, went on the hunt for the Giant Wood Moth, which is a fascinating part of garden ecology. Amery,R. From the meagre information available it is impossible to ascertain the extent of an individual or group’s paaluck nursery. 21. A chance encounter with the mysterious habitat of the Bardi Grub sparked curiosity about their tiny and transient homes. The presence of these grubs in a Xanthorea is thus ascertained: if the top of one of these trees is observed to be dead, and it contains any Bardi, a few sharp kicks given to it with the foot will cause it to crack and shake, when it is pushed over and the grub extracted, by breaking the tree to pieces with a hammer. Mosquitoes â Mosquitoes are Australian flying insects and the female mosquitoes are those that drink our blood. This was not an idle comment but was based on a tried and tested cultural imperative. Hassell, writing in the 1890’s records, We think that A.Y. Throughout our conversations with the Elders it was never specified whether these were the larvae of beetles or moths. Indigenous mythologies most of which were not recorded by the white settlers owing to them being considered too incredulous (Grey 1841 acknowledges this) contained cultural metaphors, moral messages and deeply encoded ecological and animal, plant and bird phenological information. …he extracts the grubs, of which sometimes more than a hundred are found in a single tree. Whether this is a variant rendition of burrtt or bert is unclear. Bardi collecting in this manner was still occurring in the 1930’s in the Kendenup area as reported in the Western Mail: ‘I have not seen the natives securing bardies from roots but have watched them getting them from the limbs of bushes and trees. It is surprising to us that Moore (1834, 1839) did not enquire as to the Nyungar name for this larva, especially as it provided a feast for Aboriginal people visiting his property in late March 1834. Nyungar – The People: Aboriginal customs in the southwest of Australia. It would seem that no larval specimen was provided to Newman as he provides no taxonomical larval description. The larvae feed on dead plant material and the live roots or stems of a broad range of plants including lawns. Men would often consume grubs opportunistically while out hunting for larger game, such as possum or kangaroo, as noted by Grey (1841) and Hammond (1933:40-41) who states: ‘As he walked along, with his eyes alert, the native could tell, too, which trees had opossums in them and which trees or blackboys would have grubs. Could it be this simple? pp. 94: 213–240. Stokes, J. L. 1846 Discoveries in Australia with an account of the coasts and rivers explored and surveyed during the voyage of H.M.S. Drummond (1843) writing in the mid-19th century describes how Nyungar people made a hook using the flexible thin branch of Melaleuca radula or tea-tree ‘to extract an edible grub which they find in the manna gum [Acacia].’ The name of the hooked stick he records as numbat, although we suggest that this may have been a typographical error (of which there are many) in the typescript or, alternatively, his Scottish way of rendering the Nyungar term nambar meaning ‘a barb.’. They belong to the … 1842 Letter No. Also, Linnaean classification focuses only on adult insect specimens. 1930 Early days in Western Australia, being the letters and Journal of Lieut. 1833 ‘A Glance at the Manners, and Language of the Aboriginal Inhabitants of Western Australia; with a short vocabulary’. (Cerambycidae). Canberra: Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies. Typescript. Grey’s (1841:289) comments, together with those of Nind (1831), confirm that by breaking off the tops of selected Xanthorrhoea the Nyungar were able to accelerate the decay of the plant and create a raising medium for the cultivation of wild insect larvae. (Ed.) 6 to the Inquirer, 10th August. If two or more men belonging to the same hunting ground, break off the tops of certain trees, these trees are the individual property of the person who broke their tops off, until the grubs have been extracted, no one else having a right to touch the grubs, except the young children or grandchildren of the owner of the trees.’. Giant … Write a review. Calvert, Albert F. 1902 Journal of the Calvert Scientific Exploring Expedition 1896-7. Early recorders likened it to ‘a nice nut’, ‘roasted chestnut’, ‘sweet chestnut,’ ‘a good hazelnut’ or ‘pounded almonds with cream.’ Did these early writers actually taste the bardi or like so many of their descriptions, did they copy from others, especially given their culturally ingrained revulsion towards grub eating. Moore, G.F. 1842 A Descriptive Vocabulary of the Language in Common Use Amongst the Aborigines of Western Australia. Most species of moth spend the majority of their life in larva form, with just a short time spent as an adult winged-moth in order to breed. Once a moth, it does not feed due to degenerate mouthparts. North Perth: Creative Research Publishers. Beagle in the years 1837-43.Vol 1. Bradshaw (1857: 99), referring to the Nyungar people of the Swan River area, notes that: ‘there are also three kinds of grubs that the natives are fond of and which sometimes they cook, but oftener eat raw. She writes: ‘Bardie – a large white grub found in the roots and under the bark of certain trees. ‘…the guide for the official common names of Australian insects (Naumann 1993) lists three taxa of insects as, ‘One of them, who appeared to be superior to the others, both in rank and intelligence, shewed us various roots which they used for food, and also the manner of digging for them; and, in return for our civility, in giving him and his friends a little biscuit, he procured a handful of loathsome-looking grubs from a grass-tree, and offered them to us, after having himself ate two or three, to show us that they were used by them as food. These may not have been perceived in a Western-style format but more likely in a mythological or ritualized context involving spiritual increase ceremonies. Carlisle, Perth: Hesperian Press. In traditional taxonomy, as we have noted, grubs were not differentiated according to a Linnaean speciation model but were classified by means of emic “descriptors” based on practical criteria such as edibility, size, colour, habitat, lifecycle stage, nutritive fat content and seasonal availability. In the Nyungar language when a term is repeated, it is said to indicate a comparative value, e.g. Hassell 1894) and palak (Douglas 1979: 84) have all been used to refer to the grass tree. These were djirang (Whitehurst 1992:35) which has also been rendered by recorders as chira, djeroong, jer-rung, jerring, jerrong, cheerung and jeerung. 3rd September. The adult moth has a wingspan of up to 16cms. It is well documented that the Nyungar people had a voracious appetite for consuming all kinds of animal and vegetable fats and the fat-rich bardies were no exception. This would have involved a high energy input by the male owners of the Xanthorrhoea patch, to destroy the plant to hasten its decay, thereby providing a suitable medium on which the adult female beetle deposits its eggs. Landgate (formerly Dept of Land Administration), Perth. This practice, like other unfamiliar food traditions such as indigenous geophagy (earth-eating) that we have described in a separate paper http://anthropologyfromtheshed.com/project/geophagy-the-earth-eaters-of-lower-southwestern-australia/only reinforced the colonial idea that the Aborigines of southwestern Australia, like those in other parts of Australia, were subhuman, uncivilized and deserved to be colonised by the economically, culturally and technologically superior ‘civilized’ white people. By Nyungar people must have devised means of their spawning ( approximately February April. ( n.d. ) who was observing Nyungar culture in the southwest of Australia phillips, Charlma 1993 ‘ cockchafer ’. 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